In foreign language learning, two primary modes emerge: Explicit Learning and Implicit Acquisition. Explicit learning is a conscious, effortful process focused on understanding language mechanics and rules, crucial for accuracy, though demanding "deep concentration" and challenging to sustain for long periods due to cognitive load. This creates a paradox: it's essential for accuracy but limited in sustainability.

Conversely, Implicit Acquisition is a subconscious process of "picking up" a language naturally, akin to first language acquisition, and is vital for developing fluency. This mode is less cognitively draining, allowing for more sustained engagement.

Explicit Learning

Explicit learning is defined as a conscious and intentional process where learners actively strive to identify patterns, formulate rules, and test hypotheses about the target language.

This conscious engagement with language rules is primarily associated with the development of grammatical competence.

This knowledge directly contributes to accuracy, which is the ability to use the language precisely and with minimal errors. Research suggests that in the initial stages of language learning, prioritizing accuracy through explicit means is crucial for establishing a robust linguistic foundation.

The deliberate nature of explicit learning, inherently consumes significant cognitive resources, particularly attention and working memory. This high cognitive investment is the fundamental reason why explicit learning feels like deep concentration and is challenging to sustain for extended periods.

When learners are presented with more information or tasks than their cognitive system can effectively manage, cognitive overload occurs.

This presents a paradox: its essential nature for accuracy comes with an inherent limitation in sustainability, underscoring the need for complementary approaches.

Implicit Acquisition

Stephen Krashen famously distinguished between "acquisition" and "learning," a dichotomy that provides foundational terminology for the two observed modes. According to Krashen, acquisition is a subconscious process of incidentally "picking up" a language, akin to how children become proficient in their L1.

Let’s look into SLA building blocks and cycle.
https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125973657.pdf

Input Hypothesis

i+1

We move forward in the natural order, by understanding the input that contains the structure of the next stage, that is, a little bit above our current level of language ability.

Assume the current level is “i” and the next stage is "i+1"( stage a little higher than the current level).

There is a controversy about the application of the “i+1” mode in actual language teaching. Since teachers cannot grasp the degree to which language input conforms to the definition of “i+1”, therefore, the learner may be provided with “i+1” or “i+3”.

Interaction Hypothesis

Interaction involves the "negotiation of meaning" a process where learners and their interlocutors adjust their language—through strategies such as clarification requests, repetitions, or comprehension checks—to ensure mutual understanding.

In the interaction between the two parties, there are two adjustments for language input.

One is adjusting the language form, which makes the language input closer to the learners' level.

The other is adjusting the structure and function of discourse, which improves the comprehension of input with the assistance of asking questions, repeating speeches, explaining meanings, and so on.

This refers to the modification of the interactional structure of the conversation itself. It involves the dynamic adjustments made by participants during a conversation to ensure mutual understanding, often through "negotiation of meaning."

• Example: Consider a conversation between a native speaker (NS) and a non-native speaker (NNS):
  • NNS: "I go to the store... for buy... uh... apple."
  • NS (Clarification Request): "You went to the store to buy apples?" (The NS asks a question to confirm understanding and prompts the NNS to clarify).
  • NS (Confirmation Check): "So, you bought red apples, right?" (The NS seeks confirmation of their understanding).
  • NS (Recast): "Ah, you went to the store to buy apples." (The NS subtly corrects the NNS's grammar by rephrasing the utterance correctly within the flow of conversation, without explicitly pointing out the error).
  • NS (Comprehension Check): "Do you understand what I mean by 'ripe'?" (The NS directly checks if the NNS has understood a specific word or phrase).

Explicit feedback and implicit feedback are two forms of feedback.

Explicit feedback is a form of direct correction, such as telling the learner the wrong word in their output and explaining the correct usage of the word.

Implicit feedback is a form of indirect correction, including confirmation checks, clarification requests, comprehension checks, Recasts, and other strategies.

Output Hypothesis

Swain mentions three important functions of the Output Hypothesis:

1. The noticing function. Through language output, learners can find gaps between the target language and learned language in which their language develops further;
2. The hypothesis testing function. Learners can check their assumptions about language expressions or form by output;
3. The meta-linguistic reflective function. Output can reflect on language problems and encourage learners to discuss them.

However, some researchers argue that learners do not pay attention to language problems in their output even if they are given feedback, or that learners do not have enough meaningful output opportunities in the classroom, so the argument that output is directly decided language acquisition could be regarded as questionable parlance.

Note on Retrieval

Summary

To sum up, in the process of second language acquisition, the relationship between input, interaction and output is mutually influenced and interdependent.

Notes

The "shallow concentration" aspect of this mode stems from the implicit nature of this process, where the primary focus is on conveying meaning rather than on explicit rules, thereby allowing for more sustained and less cognitively draining engagement.

For adults, implicit learning alone is often insufficient for achieving native-like accuracy, largely due to the pervasive influence of their established first language.